Economic Reasons for The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and Its Abolition

Original Article By: Rainfaerie

            It is easy to see how why Trans-Atlantic slave trade is credited with the economic development of world powers such as Western Europe and the Americas. But what may not be so easy to understand is why slavery was abolished after proving to be such a source of financial wealth. This analysis will look over some of the major events that occurred towards the end of slavery, and show that the abolition of slavery was a business decision, not an ethical one. In turn, the economic reasons for the Trans-Atlantic slave trade and its abolition will be revealed.

The Triangular Trade

            The triangular trade was a Trans-Atlantic trade network established between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Originally started by Spain and Portugal, the triangular trade soon attracted more merchants including Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands. Some of the goods plantations were set up to cultivate the production of a variety of goods such as Sugar

Change Comes to the West Indies

            The Napoleonic Wars in the West Indies caused a strain on trade relations between France and Great Britain—who barred the French from trade with English colonies. Bur prior to that there was another problem arising for the French. Saint Dominigue was the crown jewel of the French in the West Indies due to its profitability from abundant commodities produced on its plantations—sugar and coffee—both of which were highly demanded by Europeans. These commodities were so highly demanded that the need for manpower increased—resulting in the slave population of the island doubling.1 This created an imbalance in the ratio of whites to black slaves, in which the latter had greater numbers. An uprising, which Boukman led in 1791, left a fear in slave owners that the slaves could possibly succeed in overthrowing the French, and take control of the island. A “Saint-Domingue insurrection...began in 1791 and culminated in the creation of the independent black  republic of Haiti in 1804.”2 The rebellion of 1804 eliminated the supply of commodities from Domingue.3 In an effort to eliminate competition, France's rival—Great Britain cut them off from British colonies4, which had already put the French at a major financial disadvantage. After Haiti's independence, the French found a new, more efficient means of sugar production on their own soil.  Meanwhile, in 1801 the king of Prussia financed the establishment of a factory for the production of beet sugar, which has recently been discovered. Napoleon took this opportunity to reestablish France's sugar industry by decreeing that French farmers cultivate beets since the climate of France was permissible. Towards the end of the 18^th century, sugarcane plantations of the Americas became less profitable due to the European embargo during the European wars. This was exaggerated even more because by 1900, beet sugar accounted for 65%  of the world's sugar production. The French economy began to flourish as the West Indies declined in profitability as beet sugar became a rival of cane sugar.5 Because the triangular trade was no longer as profitable to Western economies as before, cultivation of goods on African soil became a popular alternative to transporting slaves to the West Indies. This was a step in the direction of abolishing the slave trade, which would become a reality much later.

The Industrial Revolution

           “Industrial development in Great Britain stimulated the demand for oil, and this demand was partly satisfied through trade with the west African coast”. As more machines were invented the British, lubricants were needed for their successful operation. Palm oil proved very useful as a machine lubricant, as well as in the making of soap, candles, and medicinal ointments.6 The mass manufacturing of palm oil on the Ivory Coast did not profit the local economy, it actually created dependence on Europe. Because income derived by the local Africans from the trade of palm oil was spent on European manufacturing items7—Europe was benefiting double from this industry as the money they spent on palm oil circulated right back into their hands. There was such a high demand for palm oil that the king of Dahomey restricted the cutting of oil palms to reserve oil for his kingdom.8 The king of Dahomey was unsuccessful under military pressure from Europeans, who continued to exploit palms for major production of palm oil in Ghana and Nigeria in the late 19^th century. Other African products were also exploited to benefit the Western European economy, such as rubber in Liberia. Firestone9, a major beneficiary of Liberia's rubber production  from hevea trees, is today the world's leading producer of rubber—this was at the expense of the Africans who previously owned the land.10 African agriculture also changed with the development of monocultures by Western Europeans seeking to mass produce crops on African land. These are just a few examples of the way in which the Western European economy profited from the exploitation of African resources. The actions of Western Europeans weakened the African economies, leaving many African nations in a poor financial state deigned to ensure their dependence on Europe, even after the abolition of slavery.

Influential Activists in the Abolitionist Movement

            In addition to finances, there were other factors that led to the abolition of slavery. Slave resistance grew to undermine the triangular trade, as in the example to the Haitian revolution. This persuaded slave owners to take action, and avoid losing control of their resources if a similar situation arose where blacks gained their freedom. The rise economic evolution of the world—industrial revolution—made direct exploitation of Africa more profitable than bring slaves to the Americas. By accessing resources and establishing plantations on African soil, the 'middle men' could be cut out—slave traders, and village raiders. Also, the costs associated with insurance, and the losses of personnel during the middle passage—due to disease and death—could be avoided.

            Abolitionists and former slaves began telling their stories of slave-life to the uninformed public through narratives and public lectures—causing whites to question whether slavery is ethical. Olaudah Equiano published his memoir in 1789, captivating the hearts of many readers with the help of influential acquaintances and abolitionists11. Other slave testimonies were circulates as in the case of Ottobah Cugoano, who published Narrative of the Enslavement of Ottobah Cugoano: a Native of Africa in 1787, Mary Prince, who published The History of Mary Prince in 1831, and Frederick Douglas who published Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas in 1845. These abolitionists wrote about their life as a slave, gave lectures, and traveled to gain supporters of abolition. Other abolitionists are Lucretia Coffin Mott and William Lloyd Garrison of the United States, Granville Sharp and William Wilberforce of Great Britain, and Abby Pierre and Victor Schoelcher of France. Although many abolitionists sought an end to slavery for mostly ethical reasons, their efforts mainly benefited those who only wanted to abolish slavery for economical reasons.

After Slavery Was Abolished

            Slave trading was outlawed by Great Britain in 1807, this was before slavery itself was abolished. Not  everyone ended slavery on the same date, but eventually is was abolished completely. However, after slavery was outlawed, some West Indian slave owners continued to trade illegally. These illegal actions promoted the development of a strong economy in both Cuba12 and Brazil13.
           Another effect of the abolition of slavery was the instance of trials. Slave owners who were accustomed to bringing their slaves along with them to Europe were met with surprise when their slaves sought legal action against them upon arrival. Because slavery was outlawed in continental Europe, it was illegal for slave owners to possess slaves in Europe. A classic example of this is the Somerset trial that was held in London in 1772.14 This obviously presented a financial risk to slave owners traveling to Europe. Slave owners actually received compensation from for taking a loss of manpower once slavery ended.

Summary of the Ultimate Reasons for the Abolition of Slavery

            The Trans-Atlantic slave trade provided a solid foundation for guiding the economies of the Americas and well as Europe. The abolition of slavery and the slave trade was made possible by a variety of factors. The Industrial Revolution led to monumental transformation in the means of gaining wealth among world economy leaders, from manpower to mass production from factories and plantations using machines. As technology advanced, providing more profitable means for gaining and sustaining wealth, the world view of slavery also began to change. Although abolition was considered by some—an ethical movement to end crimes against humanity, the slave trade was a indeed about business. At the end of the day, the abolition of slavery was a decision by business owners worldwide to ensure the success of their companies, and in turn promote a healthy economic state in their homelands. For countries, continuing slavery late into the 19^th century was more profitable for their economies, even if they had to take risks of illegal slave trading. However, for world leaders like the British, abolition was a step in the right direction to promote a much wealthier economy. As for the post-abolition conditions of Africa, dependency on Europe caused a decline in many economies. Even though African land and resources were exploited by Europeans, the profits generated only further stimulated those who were in the control—Europeans. It is fairly simple to understand that that the abolition of slavery was merely an economic strategy devised to expand the wealth of some European countries. The efforts of abolitionist movements helped to further this agenda by changing the concept of slavery in the minds of the masses, and gaining their cooperation. With this agenda, Europeans could ensure that Africa would be forced into a position to provide a secure, and substantial source of income for Europe long into the future, and not have the financial resources to overcome dependency on the European economy. In summary, the main economic reason for the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, was to create a stable system of residual income to stimulate European economies, with the least amount of financial expenditures. Abolition was merely implemented as a business strategy necessary to increase European cash flow by eliminating the costs of slavery—made unnecessary with the advances of the Industrial Revolution.

Footnotes:

---

1 Jeremy D. Popkin, “Facing Racial Revolution: Captivity Narratives and Identity in the Saint Domingue Insurrection,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 36, no. 4 (2003): 513.

2 Jeremy D. Popkin, “Facing Racial Revolution: Captivity Narratives and Identity in the Saint Domingue Insurrection,”Eighteenth-Century Studies 36, no. 4 (2003): 512.

3 J. R. Ward, “The Industrial Revolution and British Imperialism, 1750-1850,” The Economic History Review, New Series47, no. 1 (1994): 49.

4 J. R. Ward, “The Industrial Revolution and British Imperialism, 1750-1850,” The Economic History Review, New Series47, no. 1 (1994): 60.

5 Muriel E. Poggi, “The German Sugar Beet Industry,” Economic Geography 6, no. 1 (1930): 81.

6 James Sanders, “Palm Oil Production on the Gold Coast in the Aftermath of the Slave Trade: A Case Study of the Fante.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies 15, no. 1 (1982): 58.

7 James Sanders, “Palm Oil Production on the Gold Coast in the Aftermath of the Slave Trade: A Case Study of the Fante.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies 15, no. 1 (1982): 63.

8 Robin Law, “The Politics of Commercial Transition: Factional Conflict in Dahomey in the Context of the Ending of the Atlantic Slave Trade,” The Journal of African History 38, no. 2 (1997): 224.

9 William R. Stanley, “Transport Expansion in Liberia,” Geographical Review 60, no. 4 (1970): 533.

10 J. Forbes Munro, “Monopolists and Speculators: British Investment in West African Rubber 1905-1914,” The Journal of African History 22, no. 2 (1981): 269.

11 Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of Olaudah Equiano od Gustavas Vassa, The African (New York: Modern Library, 1789, 2004), xl-lx.

12 Alfonso W. Quiroz, “Implicit Costs of Empire: Bureaucratic Corruption in Nineteenth-Century Cuba,” Journal of Latin American Studies 35, no. 3 (2003): 475.

13 Alfonso W. Quiroz, “Implicit Costs of Empire: Bureaucratic Corruption in Nineteenth-Century Cuba,” Journal of Latin American Studies 35, no. 3 (2003): 481.

14 Daniel J. Hulsebosch, “Nothing but Liberty: 'Somerset's Case' and the British Empire” Law and History Review24, no. 3 (2006): 648.

Bibliography

Equiano, Olaudah. The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or, Gustavas Vassa, The African. New York: Modern Library, 1789, 2004.

Hulsebosch, Daniel J. “Nothing but Liberty: 'Somerset's Case' and the British Empire.” Law and History Review 24, no. 3 (2006): 647-657.

Law, Robin. “The Politics of Commercial Transition: Factional Conflict in Dahomey in the Context of the Ending of the Atlantic Slave Trade.” The Journal of African History 38, no. 2 (1997):         213-233.

Munro, J. Forbes. “Monopolists and Speculators: British Investment in West African Rubber,        1905-1914.” The Journal of African History 22, no. 2 (1981): 263-278

Poggi, Muriel E. “The German Sugar Beet Industry.” Economic Geography 6, no. 1 (1930): 81-93

Popkin, Jeremy D. “Facing Racial Revolution: Captivity narratives and Identity in the Saint Domingue Insurrection.” Eighteenth-Century Studies 36, no. 4 (2003): 511-533

Quiroz, Alfonso W. “Implicit Costs of Empire: Bureaucratic Corruption in Nineteenth-Century Cuba.” Journal of Latin American Studies 35, no. 3 (2003): 473-511

Sanders, James. “Palm Oil Production on the Gold Coast in the Aftermath of the Slave Trade: A Case Study of the Fante.” The International Journal of African Historical Studies 15, no. 1 (1982):49-63

Stanley, William R. “Transport Expansion in Liberia.” Geographical Review 60, no. 4 (1970): 529-547

Ward, J. R. “The Industrial Revolution and British Imperialism, 1750-1850.” The Economic History Review, New Series 47, no. 1 (1994): 44-65

The Relationship Between Men, Narcissism & Religion

          It is not uncommon that etched into minds of many inhabitants of the western world lies a distorted image of the Muslim woman—mistreated and oppressed by Islam. She is constantly portrayed in the media as the victim of cruelty,  left in unmerciful hands of overly pious men. The non-Muslims viewing her immediately are awestruck with both pity for her, and anger at her oppressors. Broadcasters—merely in search of an intriguing story—seem to base their reports mainly on negative events related to the treatment of women in Islam, knowing that the religion is widely misunderstood in the west. They are are swift to depict a woman covered from head to toe in a niqab who has been on the receiving end of some form of abuse, causing viewers to associate Islam and the veil with her oppression. Since the  public lacks access to much media coverage on those women having a positive experience in the religion, many non-Muslims are led to believe that Islam has no peaceful agenda, especially for women. Why are westerners so concerned about misogyny in Islam? In the western world, Christianity and Judaism are much more widely defined than Islam due to non-polysemic canonical texts and more solidarity as far as organization. Also, most western societies are democratic and even womens rights are promoted—so how do the misogynistic themes of the Torah and the Bible manage to escape such public scrutiny? In reality, the amount of misogyny rooted in the the latter two of the aforementioned religions is not much different than that found in Islam. With that said, are the Abrahamic faiths solely responsible for misogyny? The answer is no. The unequal treatment of women predates any of these traditions and can be seen around the world. For millennia, women have engaged in a constant struggle to be restored to their original positions in society of honor and reverence. So, then what is the source of misogyny? How did this phenomenon begin? The fact is, misogyny is the result of a worldwide, political agenda—patriarchy. Misogynistic practices in religion are merely tools used by patriarchs to manipulate women in such a way as to control them, and their resources. This system of male supremacy is designed to create a form of utopia for men to reign freely, creating the rules of the world as they go along—since they control resources, they control wealth. As long as the world continues to blame religions—like Islam—for misogyny, gender inequality will continue on a global scale, and women will continuously be victims of discrimination because the root of the problem is being overlooked. To counter misogyny, women must begin with a desire for change, and then educate themselves on their history. Next, women must become aware of patriarchy, and understand how it has affected them on a personal level. Finally, women must send a clear message to men that says, 'It is not all about you!' to end this narcissistic fantasy that men have created for themselves throughout the world. Only then will men accept that they are not entitled to supremacy, or the use of other human beings simply to gratify their own carnal desires. This essay will discuss some of the effects of misogynist patriarchal values on women across the globe, especially how it has influenced women in Islam.

            It is widely known that early civilization was both  matrifocal and matrilineal in organization. Matrifocal pertains to a family structure headed by the mother, and lacking a father permanently or for extended periods of time. A matrilineal culture is one in which inheriting and descent is takes place through the female bloodline. Monica Sjoo and Barbara Mor describe the essence of original matriarchies as, “...the experienced unity of psychic/productive/sexual/cosmic power and activity in the egalitarian collective of women” (13-25). In her discussion on early Mesopotamia in Women and Gender in Islam, Leila Ahmed mentions that in the ancient Middle East, “...women were held in esteem prior to the rise of urban societies and suffered a decline in status with the emergence of urban centers...” (11). Ahmed goes further to explain that the dominant position of women was so isolated to one area, but were widespread throughout the Middle East. To show just how sacred women were to society, Ahmed says, “Archaeological findings indicate that cultures throughout the Middle East venerated the mother-goddess...into the second millennium B.C.E.” (12) Seeking power and control, men began resisting matriarchal values to establish social hierarchies and. The rise of patriarchy resulted in dualism—dividing life into higher and lower categories. This dualism resulted the binary opposition of male and female, as superior versus inferior.  Speaking of the modern world, Patriarchy is “a politics of transforming biological sex into politicised gender, which prioritises the male while making the woman different (unequal), less than, or the other” (Barlas 1).  The patriarchal ideal that God prefers men to women has given men the impression that they are superior by nature, and should be managers and rulers of women. Asma Burlas counters this assumption well in Quran and Patriarchy when stating, “...As the Quran teaches, God is beyond sex/gender, not only is there no reason to masculinize God, but there is also no reason to assume that God has any particular relationship to, or affinity with, males” (9).Through imperialism and evangelism of religious doctrine, male dominance spread, and various religious and social institutions were established under their control. Major religious institutions involved in this global transformation served helped to propagate misogynist ideals, which gained popularity among the masses disguised as hope for the lost. This is not exclusive to Islam, as Christianity and Judaism carried out a patriarchal agenda in the same manner. In his discussion of women in the Middle East, As'ad Abukhalil stated, “...Polygamy, the stigmatization of menstruation, the requirement of wifely obedience to the husband, and the inequality of inheritance and court appearances. All...have at one point or another been part of the Christian and Jewish practices or cultures” (par. 3). Because the Abrahamic faiths were founded on the patriarchal, misogynist values that preceded their existence, many of the modern practices of these religions still reflect the popular views held by society at the time they were established. Accordingly, the idea of the inferiority of women is found in every culture that these religions have touched around the world. Nearly forgotten, matriarchal values are slowly being restored in western culture today as people are introduced to the divine feminine aspects of cosmology and consciousness. To counter the ill effects of thousands of years of male domination, this process will take time.

            Islam is widely misunderstood in the western world because of the various interpretation of religious doctrine in the Muslim world. Since not all Muslims agree on a single interpretation of their religious principles, it is very difficult for a non-Muslim to grasp a full understanding of the religion. The Quran is not the only canon for Muslims; various hadiths have unevenly shaped their religious practices. There have been so many hadiths published, and many Muslims prioritize them above the Quran.

            A close look at the events that characterized the life of the Prophet reveals his egalitarian view of the sexes.  Fatima Mernissi highlighted the gentle and fair manner in which the Prophet interacted with his wives, willingly including them in most of his affairs. According to the Quran, men and women were created equally, and viewed equally in the eyes of Allah (Quran, 4.1, 3.195). Similarly, according to the first creation myth in the Bible, “God created man in his own image...male and female he created them.” There is no noted distinction between the sexes made in these verses, and the word 'them' is used to describe the subjects of God's actions at all times, obviously denoting equality (New International Version Bible, Gen. 1.27-31). Interestingly, there is a second creation myth in the Bible that accounts for Adam and Eve—neither of which were mentioned in the first. In this second myth, God gave Eve to Adam as a “helper suitable for him.” Eve was made from the rib of Adam, signifying a common biological link between the sexes (New International Version Bible, Gen. 2.18-23). It is clearly seen that in neither of the creation myths of the Bible is the male given superiority over the woman. Only later is the woman blamed for the fall of mankind from the grace of God, and the man given dominion over her. The Quran does not discriminate between men or women in terms of who is considered a believer by Allah, but various hadiths have been introduced in direct contrast to this truth (Quran, 33.35-36). Muslim leaders have justified unequal treatment of women based on assumptions paired with interpretations of Quranic verses, and countless misogynistic hadiths to support their own domineering political agendas. For example, Abu Huraira recounted a hadith that has shaped a widely-held modern Muslim opinion on the nature of a woman. He said, “The woman is like a rib, if you try to straighten her, she will break. So if you want to get benefit from her, do so while she still has some crookedness” (Khan, 7.62.113). This implies that by nature, women—unlike men—are weak and flawed in a way that cannot be perfected. Let it be noted that the Quran states that, “[Mankind] was created weak,” which means every human being has imperfections—including men (Quran, 4.28). Secondly, Huraira is insisting that every woman has a breaking point, and she should be used to benefit men prior to reaching it. This widely accepted hadith serves only to give men a means to mask their superiority complex, so that they can justify their insatiable lust for power and control over resources. This patriarchal, misogynistic value that many men hold can be seen on a global scale, regardless of religion. Mernissi explains how this superiority complex has interfered with loyalty to the Islamic faith when she says, “...The men professed Islam, but openly rejected it when it supported equality between the sexes” (129). This brings into question whether misogynist Muslim men are purposely using the religion as a persuasive tool to gain political power, or truly devoted to the will of Allah with a poor understanding of the Quran. Mernissi even noted two major motivators of Muslim believers, “...booty, along with the promised life in paradise...” (134). Much can be said when a man is willing to trade in that fate to avoid acknowledging the equality of a woman.

            The belief in women as inferior beings is the driving force behind every form of unfair treatment of women around the world. It is the fundamental component of misogyny, as it is used to justify a less-acceptable form for treatment for women, who are seen a nearly less than human. This can even be seen in the Bible when the Apostle Peter refers to married women as the “weaker partner” in his address to the Romans (New International Version Bible, 1Pet. 3.7). Also in the Apostle Paul's letter to Timothy, his reason for instructing a woman not to have authority over a man is because, “Adam was formed first, then Eve. [He] was not the one deceived; it was [Eve] who was deceived and became a sinner” (New International Version Bible, 1Tim. 2.12-14). As was the case with the conflicting hadith mentioned before, these verses are in stark contrast to the creation myth in the book of Genesis. A review of the third chapter of Genesis will show that, “[Eve] gave some [forbidden fruit] to her husband, who was with her, and he ate it.” Adam was not forced or coerced into sinning, but did so by his own free will. This is a significant point because it results in women being blamed for mankind's separation from God—even though men agree to their participation. Blaming women for mankind's separation from God is not exclusive to the Abrahamic faiths, this and can be seen in theodicies around the world. Just as in the myth of Pandora's box, and the creation myth of the Ashanti tribe of West Africa—the blame is placed on women for ushering evil and suffering into human existence. So, the aforementioned hadith is only a tool used by men to deceive women into thinking that their rightful existence is a position of total dependence on men. Sadly, many women have bought into this viewpoint—allowing men to dominate society—at the expense of many of their own rights, and freedom of choice. What all of the listed examples have in common is not religion, but a widespread, patriarchal attitude of male supremacy.

            Sexuality is a hot topic in the Muslim world because it is regarded as a natural part of life. Due to the Christian influence, sex is often a taboo subject in western civilization. However, on thing remains constant—male domination of female sexuality. Due to patriarchy, many Muslim marriages are similar to a property-ownership relationship. Huraira recounted a hadith that has given many men an excuse to abuse their wives sexual freedom in saying, “If a man Invites his wife to sleep with him and she refuses to come to him, then the angels send their curses on her till morning” (Bukhari 7.62.121). This is a classic example of a man attempting to resolve his sexual frustration by threatening the woman with hell fires. Another attempt by men to control women's sexuality is the misinterpretation of Quranic verses pertaining to women's modesty. “Tell your wives and daughters, and the believing women, that they should cast their outer garments over their persons...that they should be known and not molested.” (Quran 33.59) Also, the verse that states“...believing women...should lower their gaze and guard their modesty...they should not display their ornaments except what must ordinarily appear thereof...”(Quran 24.31), is used to justify veiling women—regardless of whether they decide to or not. Granted, many Muslim women veil as a means of cultural identity, not oppression. However, many Muslim women veil to avoid being seen as a sexual object by lustful men. Even more surprising, many modern Muslim women claim to wear the veil to avoid fitna—being a sexual temptress to men in their surroundings. As for the women who proudly veil as a form of identifying with Muslim culture, there is no issue. However, there is an issue when women veil to avoid fitna because they are just compensating for the failed responsibilities of men. Men do not seem to want to take responsibility for controlling their sexual urges. Instead of disciplining themselves not to act out on sexual urges toward women, they would rather make women 'cover up.' Would it then be fair to mandate men keep their eyes closed at all times to maintain purity, since women are such a distraction to them? Absolutely not, that would be as absurd as regulating women's dress to maintain men's sexual behavior in accordance with Allah's will. This is narcissism at its finest—men find it easier to pull rank on women than to just worry about themselves.

            The last example in this discussion on the narcissistic behavior of men is the hadith by Huraira in Mernissi's The Veil and the Male Elite that states, “The Prophet said that the dog, the ass, and woman interrupt prayer if they pass in from of the believer, interposing themselves between him and the qibla” (64). This hadith has had monumental effects on Muslim women, even in western civilization. This has given men the means to justify excluding women from the masjid, even though the Prophet built apartments for his wives in the masjid! Even in the year 2012, though women are allowed into the masjid in many places, they are often situated behind and separate from the praying area of the men. This hadith in particular is one that denotes a less-than-human nature of women, and that is why men view them as a distraction. First of all, when a Muslim man travels to the masjid, he should be completely focused on his purpose there, and his duties to Allah—not women. How is it possible that a man with a mind set for prayer can be distracted by a women merely passing him? Even further, do these men really think that women—who by the way are dressed very modestly—came all the way to the masjid just to distract them? Again, this is a classic example of the narcissistic attitude of men taken out on women. In turn, men have interfered with women's experience at the masjid. Women, who attend the masjid to pray, have the added burden of seclusion and trying not to offset the men. It seems morally wrong for men to create such interferences in Muslim womens' worship of Allah. This is just another ploy of patriarchy—men blame the woman of their lack of self-discipline in the mosque. This blame, over time, has actually convinced some of the women to agree with the men that this is the best arrangement.

            In closing, the few examples cited in this discussion have shown how a few extreme opinions can be far-reaching. Islam is a dynamic religion—offering peace and prosperity to its followers—but patriarchs have gotten in the way of that promise. Because of patriarchy, misogyny is a pandemic that had spread across the world. Once women take a stand  for themselves—demanding that men take responsibility for their own actions and cease playing the victim—the female will be restored to a position of power and honor. However, the world lies in a disabling, patriarchal psychosis, which leads to ignorance and subjection of the female. Women are not inferior. Women are not a lesser species. Women are the nurturers of the world, who manifest dreams, and give life. However, none of this will ever matter unless women reclaim their rightful positions in society—beside, if not above men!

Works Cited

Abukhalil, As'ad. “Women In The Middle East.” Foreign Policy in Focus 5.30 (2000)

Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender In Islam. New Haven & London: Yale University Press:1992

The Holy Qur'an. Trans. Abdullah Yusuf Ali. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wadsworth Editions LTD, 2001

Barlas, Asma. “The Qur'an and Hermeneutics: reading the Qur'an's opposition to Patriarchy.” Journal of             Qur'anic Studies 4.2 (2002): 15-38

Khan, M. Mushin. “Introduction To Translation Sahih Bukhari.” Center for Muslim-Jewish           Engagement. 2007. University of Southern California. 2010. 3 Oct.             <http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/bukhari/>

“Matrifocal.” Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 04 Oct. 2010

            <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/matrifocal>.

“Matrilineal.” Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 04 Oct. 2010

            <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/matrifocal>.

Mernissi, Fatima. The Veil and the Make Elite: A Feminist Interpretation of Women's Right in Islam.

            Great Britain: Basic Books, 1992.

Women of Faith Study Bible: New International Version. Ed. Jean E. Syswerda.

            Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2001.

African Traditional Religion: Sources of the Unchanging Goddess

Original Article By: Rainfaerie

“Darkness preceded light and She is Mother”

- Inscription on the altar of the cathedral, Salerno Italy

Introduction to the Concept of the Divine Feminine

            It has long been known that women created most of early human civilization. Some of the professions of women that have contributed to human survival are: teaching, cooking, nurturing, hunting, rearing children, production of ceramics, weaving, medicine, the healing arts and much more. So why then are women so often depicted as inferior beings, given their substantial contribution to human survival? The answer lies in the shift in the organization of matriarchal civilizations to those with patriarchal agendas. Women—who were once held in very high esteem as the mothers and nurturers of humanity became—subservient to men, and were devalued in the eyes of society. The rise of patriarchy marked a shift in many religions worldwide from the veneration of the divine feminine principle of the universe to a male supreme being. However, although patriarchal values dominate most of the world, many traditional African religions continue to recognize the female aspect of divinity—at times referred to as Earth Goddess or Mother Goddess in addition to the male aspect. The influence of this female archetype has spread far and wide, reaching the shores of Europe, Asia, the Caribbean as well as the Americas. Various matrifocal customs that predate modern societies can still be seen in cultures around the world. In this analysis, the concept of the divine feminine archetype will be discussed in the context of African traditional religions. Although portrayed in various forms and nationalities across the globe, the African Mother Goddess remains a vital force behind many forms of spirituality—including those considered mainstream religions. The female aspect of divinity is not exclusive to Africa, She is portrayed many Afro-Caribbean—syncretistic—religious traditions, Christianity, and many other western religions.

The Goddess in West Africa 

            Among the Fon of Dahomey—now Benin, the Supreme Being and Creator of the universe, Nana Buluku, is an androgynous being. The Fon creation myth holds that Nana Buluku gave birth to Mawu—sometimes referred to as Mawu-Lisa. Mawu refers the kind female aspect of God who is nurturing, and Lisa is the aggressive male aspect who punishes. However, Mawu is often referred to as an independent entity without the surname Lisa—denoting a divine, female creator. A glance at the etymology of Mawu suggests the meaning to be “the one who does not kill,” suggesting her nurturing nature as the source of life. Another definition of Mawu is, “that which you cannot exceed,” suggesting her ultimate power, and authority over the universe. (Gaba 64) According to Fon mythology, Nana Buluku was assisted in creation by Da, also known as Aido Hwedo—a serpent who formed the mountains, valleys, and waterways of the earth who later coiled beneath the earth to promote cosmic balance. Aido Hwedo then transformed into a “pair of deities”—the serpent goddess who promotes balance, and the god Damballah. (Foubister 174) 

            The Yoruba of Nigeria refer to the Supreme Being as Olodumare—one who is supreme, and is also known as Olorun—the judge. The divine female counterpart of Olorun is Olokun, referred to as owner of the seas. Although Olodumare is credited with creation according to Yoruba mythology, Olokun plays a very nurturing role to humanity after creation, ensuring its survival. She is manifested as both the earth and water—serving as the physical habitat for humanity. To demonstrate the importance of Olokun, J. Mason mentions that She is a “beneficent divinity” who “has all the material well-being at [her] disposal and can contribute this to humanity” as she pleases. (Harvey 74) Another key figure in the Yoruba tradition, venerated by followers worldwide is Oshun—a Yoruba deity, orisha, or divine manifestation of Olodumare.  At the 1971 annual Oshun Festival in Nigeria—as people made various requests such as wealth, health, and security from Oshun—a woman referred to Her as the“...kind and generous mother-goddess.” The festival is viewed as a common anniversary of worshipers, marking a period when Yoruba people “...operate within the bond of common nativity.” (Ogunwale 62) According to John S. Mbiti, “The Yoruba have one thousand and seven hundred [orishas]...the largest collection...in a single African people”. (75) Interestingly, Oshun has a very special role that sets her apart from other deities. She is the “giver of life” and can decide whether or not to give someone children through birth, and to take them back to the spiritual realm at her discretion. (Murrell 111) This is such a powerful position because She controls the population of the entire world as the cosmic womb, and is therefore a symbol of motherhood.

            The Ashanti of Ghana also recognize a male god—Onyame—as the Supreme Being, whose name means, “If you possess him, you are satisfied.” He is also referred to as Nyankupon—the great friend—whose wife is Obatampa. Although Onyame is the creator of mankind according to mythology, His role does not include the nourishment of his creation. Obatampa—also known as Asase Yaa—is charged with caring for mankind instead. Similar to the motherly goddesses Mawu and Olokun, Obatampa nurtures and sustains human life on Earth independently of Onyame, and is also referred to as Asase Yaa. Interestingly, Asase Yaa happens to means 'Earth Goddess'—further denoting the occupation of this divine being as a physical manifestation of the earth from which mankind derives his sustenance, and feminine. 

            Although goddesses are often portrayed as deities, they are next to the Supreme Being in the spiritual hierarchy, and can act independently. The Igbo of Nigeria regard the earth as God's daughter, Adachi, who, “protects the people and helps with the crops.” Also, among the Zulu of South Africa, the “'Queen of heaven'...is said to be of great beauty. The rainbow, mist, and rain are emanations of her glory, and she is surrounded by light.” She is also a virgin, who teaches “women how to make beer.” (Mbiti 76-77) Therefore, these deities are very powerful and play a crucial role in the survival of all life forms on Earth. They are usually assigned a mother-goddess archetype because the creator has left them in charge of caring for the needy life forms of the world after She/He has completed creation.

The Afro-Caribbean Goddess

            The Caribbean is represented by a wide variety of African descendants and their religious traditions. A few are mentioned in this section to reveal the presence of the mother Goddess, amidst the social reform that occurred many years ago. In Cuba, the “matron deity” of the Yoruba practicing Santeria is Yemoja. (Abiodun 8) According to Murrell, she is “the sister of Oshun and a favorite orisha...the model mother and giver of life, protector of maternity, goddess of the oceans, and patron of mariners.” (111) In Jamaica, the Ashanti-inspired magical practice of obeah, “the manipulation of good or evil depending on its benefits to the community,” was established after the Transatlantic slave trade. (Watt 204) Obeah-women practiced magic and faith healing because they were unable to function in their customary religious roles due to slavery, harsh laws, and the of demands of Christianity. The archetypal Earth goddess remained a source of inspiration to oppressed women as a guardian and a guiding example of motherhood. In Haiti, the Fon created a religious practice including magic called Voodoo, with Erzulie, or Ezili, as a matron deity representing the female energy of Legba—the god of crossroads, guarding the gates between humans and the spirit world, and summoner or loas—divine spirit beings—for humans to speak with. Erzulie is known and feared as the goddess of love and beauty, usually taking the form of “a serpent coiled upon itself.” (Background)

The Christian Goddess

            In Christianity, the concept of the Madonna and Christ child can be traced back to the African origins of the goddess Isis of ancient Egypt, suckling her son Horus. There are countless icons depicting Isis and Horus, which far predate Christianity. Sjoo and Mor wrote, “Throughout Europe...we can find Black Madonnas...They are not psychological symbols of the dark side of the mother of Christ...they are solid iconic remains of an ancient time when the religion of the Black Goddess ruled Africa...” (31-32) The Virgin Mary is a derived concept of an African divinity disguised to avoid idolatry, which a violation of a Biblical commandment. Finally, the forbidden tree in the myth of the Garden of Eden was said to be a fig tree, representative of the Egyptian goddess Hathor. Both the tree and the evil serpent represented Hathor's “ancient magic powers of illumination and immortality.” (101)

What Is To Be Gathered Of The Goddess

            As discussed, the female aspect of God seems to be almost everywhere. She not only resides within the hearts and minds of many traditional African religions, but in almost all modern religions throughout the world. The influence of the African Goddess was spread by various means during the diaspora of humankind from the cradle of humanity—the Great Rift Valley in the Congo region. Those who denied Her supreme position in the spiritual hierarchy to establish patriarchal religious institutions did not succeed in annihilating Her story. The powerful influence of the Goddess is immeasurable because She is the mother and nurturer of humankind, without which survival is impossible. Even amid the some of the most patriarchal and misogynistic religious traditions, the Goddess makes Her presence known in a creative disguise. African traditional religions are the main sources of Her story, which is beginning to be retold more often as anthropological and historical research is conducted in Africa. As members of these predominantly oral traditions increasingly share their customs with the rest of the world via liturgy, poetry, and narratives, the Goddess will reemerge to meet the demands of unacquainted, broken communities in desperate need of a mother's nourishment.

Works Cited

1. Abiodun, Rowland. “Women in Yoruba Religious Images.” African Languages and Cultures 2.1(1989):1-18. Print.
2. “Background about Erzulie.” VCU.edu. Virginia Commonwealth University, n.d. Thu. 2 dec. 2010.
3. Foubister, Linda. Goddess in the Grass: Serpentine Mythology and the Great Goddess.Toronto, ON: EcceNova Editions, 2003. Print.
4. Gaba, C. R. “The Idea of a Supreme Being Among the Anglo People of Ghana.” Journal of Religion in Africa 2.1 (1969): 64-79. Print.
5. Harvey, Marcus L. “Engaging the Orisa: An Explanation of the Yoruba Concepts of Ibeji and Olokun as Theoretical Principles in Black Theology.” Black Theology: An International Journal 6.1(2008): 61-82. Print.
6. Mbiti, John S. African Religions, Second Edition. Jordan Hill, Oxford: 1969. Print.
7. Murrell, Nathaniel S. Afro-Caribbean Religions: An Introduction to Their Historical, Cultural, and Sacred Traditions. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2010. Print.
8. Ogunwale, Titus A. “Oshun Festival.” African Arts 4.4 (1971): 61-62. Print.
9. Sjoo, Monica & Mor, Barbara. The Great Cosmic Mother: Rediscovering the Religion of the Earth. New York: HarperCollins Publishers: 1987. Print.
10. Watt, Diane. “Traditional religious Practices Amongst African Caribbean Mothers and Community Othermothers.” Black Theology: An International Journal 2.2 (2004):195-212. Print.